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[1]L. W. Peterson and D. Artis. Intestinal epithelial cells: regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis. Nat Rev Immunol, 14(3), 141-53 (2014)
[2]L. Xiao, J N Rao, T. Zou, L. Liu, B S Marasa, J. Chen, D J Turner, A. Passaniti and J. Y. Wang. Induced JunD in intestinal epithelial cells represses CDK4 transcription through its proximal promoter region following polyamine depletion. Biochem J, 403(3), 573-81 (2007)
[3]M. Maceyka, S G Payne, S. Milstien and S. Spiegel. Sphingosine kinase, sphingosine-1-phosphate, and apoptosis. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids, 1585(2–3), 193-201 (2002)
[4]M. Adada, D. Canals, Y A Hannun and L. M. Obeid. Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2. FEBS J, 280(24), 6354-66 (2013)
[5]Y. Takuwa, Y. Okamoto, K. Yoshioka and N. Takuwa. Sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling in physiology and diseases. Biofactors, 38(5), 329-37 (2012)
[6]G. M. Strub, M. Maceyka, N C Hait, S. Milstien and S. Spiegel. Extracellular and intracellular actions of sphingosine-1-phosphate. Adv Exp Med Biol, 688, 141-55 (2010)
[7]W. L. Santos and K. R. Lynch. Drugging sphingosine kinases. ACS Chem Biol, 10(1), 225-33 (2015)
[8]G. M. Strub, M. Paillard, J. Liang, L. Gomez, J C Allegood, N C Hait, M. Maceyka, M M Price, Q. Chen, D C Simpson, T. Kordula, S. Milstien, E J Lesnefsky and S. Spiegel. Sphingosine-1-phosphate produced by sphingosine kinase 2 in mitochondria interacts with prohibitin 2 to regulate complex IV assembly and respiration. FASEB J, 25(2), 600-12 (2011)
[9]J. J. Aarthi, M A Darendeliler and P. N. Pushparaj. Dissecting the role of the S1P/S1PR axis in health and disease. J Dent Res, 90(7), 841-54 (2011)
[10]T. Hla and V. Brinkmann. Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P): Physiology and the effects of S1P receptor modulation. Neurology, 76(8 Suppl 3), S3-8 (2011)
[11]J. Greenspon, R. Li, L. Xiao, J N Rao, R. Sun, E D Strauch, T. Shea-Donohue, J Y Wang and D. J. Turner. Sphingosine-1-phosphate regulates the expression of adherens junction protein E-cadherin and enhances intestinal epithelial cell barrier function. Dig Dis Sci, 56(5), 1342-53 (2011)
[12]J. Greenspon, R. Li, L. Xiao, J N Rao, B S Marasa, E D Strauch, J Y Wang and D. J. Turner. Sphingosine-1-phosphate protects intestinal epithelial cells from apoptosis through the Akt signaling pathway. Dig Dis Sci, 54(3), 499-510 (2009)
[13]M. N. Bavaria, S. Jin, R M Ray and L. R. Johnson. The mechanism by which MEK/ERK regulates JNK and p38 activity in polyamine depleted IEC-6 cells during apoptosis. Apoptosis, 19(3), 467-79 (2014)
[14]S. Bhattacharya, R M Ray and L. R. Johnson. Prevention of TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis in polyamine-depleted IEC-6 cells is mediated through the activation of ERK1/2. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, 286(3), G479-90 (2004)
[15]R. Liu, R. Zhao, X. Zhou, X. Liang, D J Campbell, X. Zhang, L. Zhang, R. Shi, G. Wang, W M Pandak, A E Sirica, P B Hylemon and H. Zhou. Conjugated bile acids promote cholangiocarcinoma cell invasive growth through activation of sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2. Hepatology, 60(3), 908-18 (2014)
[16]A. Quaroni, J. Wands, R L Trelstad and K. J. Isselbacher. Epithelioid cell cultures from rat small intestine. Characterization by morphologic and immunologic criteria. J Cell Biol, 80(2), 248-65 (1979)
[17]W. Hu, J. Huang, S. Mahavadi, F. Li and K. S. Murthy. Lentiviral siRNA silencing of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors S1P1 and S1P2 in smooth muscle. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 343(4), 1038-44 (2006)
[18]M. Maceyka, K B Harikumar, S. Milstien and S. Spiegel. Sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling and its role in disease. Trends Cell Biol, 22(1), 50-60 (2012)
[19]M. Nagahashi, N C Hait, M. Maceyka, D. Avni, K. Takabe, S. Milstien and S. Spiegel. Sphingosine-1-phosphate in chronic intestinal inflammation and cancer. Adv Biol Regul, 54, 112-20 (2014)
[20]E. Studer, X. Zhou, R. Zhao, Y. Wang, K. Takabe, M. Nagahashi, W M Pandak, P. Dent, S. Spiegel, R. Shi, W. Xu, X. Liu, P. Bohdan, L. Zhang, H. Zhou and P. B. Hylemon. Conjugated bile acids activate the sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 in primary rodent hepatocytes. Hepatology, 55(1), 267-76 (2012)
[21]K. Chen, W. Xie, B. Luo, W. Xiao, D H Teitelbaum, H. Yang, K. Zhang and C. Zhang. Intestinal mucosal barrier is injured by BMP2/4 via activation of NF-kappaB signals after ischemic reperfusion. Mediators Inflamm, 2014, 901530 (2014)
[22]H. Ouyang, H S Yang, T. Yu, T D Shan, J Y Li, C Z Huang, W. Zhong, Z S Xia and Q. K. Chen. MEK/ERK pathway activation by insulin receptor isoform alteration is associated with the abnormal proliferation and differentiation of intestinal epithelial cells in diabetic mice. Mol Cell Biochem, 413(1-2), 165-78 (2016)
[23]V. Pomerleau, M. Landry, J. Bernier, P H Vachon and C. Saucier. Met receptor-induced Grb2 or Shc signals both promote transformation of intestinal epithelial cells, albeit they are required for distinct oncogenic functions. BMC Cancer, 14, 240 (2014)
[24]K. Zhang, M W Hornef and A. Dupont. The intestinal epithelium as guardian of gut barrier integrity. Cell Microbiol, 17(11), 1561-9 (2015)
[25]E. N. Elliott and K. H. Kaestner. Epigenetic regulation of the intestinal epithelium. Cell Mol Life Sci, 72(21), 4139-56 (2015)
[26]E. Salvo Romero, C. Alonso Cotoner, C. Pardo Camacho, M. Casado Bedmar and M. Vicario. The intestinal barrier function and its involvement in digestive disease. Rev Esp Enferm Dig, 107(11), 686-96 (2015)
[27]C. Tincati, D C Douek and G. Marchetti. Gut barrier structure, mucosal immunity and intestinal microbiota in the pathogenesis and treatment of HIV infection. AIDS Res Ther, 13, 19 (2016)
[28]J. H. Suh and J. D. Saba. Sphingosine-1-phosphate in inflammatory bowel disease and colitis-associated colon cancer: the fat's in the fire. Transl Cancer Res, 4(5), 469-483 (2015)
[29]C. T. Murphy, K. Nally, F. Shanahan and S. Melgar. Shining a light on intestinal traffic. Clin Dev Immunol, 2012, 808157 (2012)
[30]J. Kunisawa, Y. Kurashima, M. Higuchi, M. Gohda, I. Ishikawa, I. Ogahara, N. Kim, M. Shimizu and H. Kiyono. Sphingosine 1-phosphate dependence in the regulation of lymphocyte trafficking to the gut epithelium. J Exp Med, 204(10), 2335-48 (2007)
[31]Y. Takuwa, Y. Okamoto, K. Yoshioka and N. Takuwa. Sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling and biological activities in the cardiovascular system. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1781(9), 483-8 (2008)
[32]D. H. Nguyen-Tran, N C Hait, H. Sperber, J. Qi, K. Fischer, N. Ieronimakis, M. Pantoja, A. Hays, J. Allegood, M. Reyes, S. Spiegel and H. Ruohola-Baker. Molecular mechanism of sphingosine-1-phosphate action in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Dis Model Mech, 7(1), 41-54 (2014)
[33]S. Calise, S. Blescia, F. Cencetti, C. Bernacchioni, C. Donati and P. Bruni. Sphingosine 1-phosphate stimulates proliferation and migration of satellite cells: role of S1P receptors. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1823(2), 439-50 (2012)
[34]S. Spiegel and S. Milstien. The outs and the ins of sphingosine-1-phosphate in immunity. Nat Rev Immunol, 11(6), 403-15 (2011)
[35]M. H. Graler: Targeting sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) levels and S1P receptor functions for therapeutic immune interventions. Cell Physiol Biochem, 26(1), 79-86 (2010)
[36]T. Sanchez and T. Hla. Structural and functional characteristics of S1P receptors. J Cell Biochem, 92(5), 913-22 (2004)
[37]Y. Yatomi, R J Welch and Y. Igarashi. Distribution of sphingosine 1-phosphate, a bioactive sphingolipid, in rat tissues. FEBS Lett, 404(2-3), 173-4 (1997)
[38]A. N. Anbazhagan, S. Priyamvada, A. Alakkam, A. Kumar, A. Borthakur, S. Saksena, R K Gill, W A Alrefai and P. K. Dudeja. Transcriptional Modulation of SLC26A3 (DRA) by Sphingosine-1-Phosphate. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, ajpgi 00308 2015 (2016)
[39]E. Germinario, S. Peron, L. Toniolo, R. Betto, F. Cencetti, C. Donati, P. Bruni and D. Danieli-Betto. S1P2 receptor promotes mouse skeletal muscle regeneration. J Appl Physiol (1985), 113(5), 707-13 (2012)
[40]M. H. Moon, J K Jeong and S. Y. Park. Activation of S1P2 receptor, a possible mechanism of inhibition of adipogenic differentiation by sphingosine 1phosphate. Mol Med Rep, 11(2), 1031-6 (2015)
[41]M. Grimm, D. Tischner, K. Troidl, J. Albarran Juarez, K K Sivaraj, N. Ferreiros Bouzas, G. Geisslinger, C J Binder and N. Wettschureck. S1P2/G12/13 Signaling Negatively Regulates Macrophage Activation and Indirectly Shapes the Atheroprotective B1-Cell Population. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 36(1), 37-48 (2016)
[42]D. R. Herr, M J Reolo, Y X Peh, W. Wang, C W Lee, R. Rivera, I C Paterson and J. Chun. Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1P2) attenuates reactive oxygen species formation and inhibits cell death: implications for otoprotective therapy. Sci Rep, 6, 24541 (2016)
[43]R. Wiltshire, V. Nelson, D T Kho, C E Angel, S J O'Carroll and E. S. Graham. Regulation of human cerebro-microvascular endothelial baso-lateral adhesion and barrier function by S1P through dual involvement of S1P1 and S1P2 receptors. Sci Rep, 6, 19814 (2016)
[44]R. Liu, X. Li, X. Qiang, L. Luo, P B Hylemon, Z. Jiang, L. Zhang and H. Zhou. Taurocholate Induces Cyclooxygenase-2 Expression via the Sphingosine 1-phosphate Receptor 2 in a Human Cholangiocarcinoma Cell Line. J Biol Chem, 290(52), 30988-1002 (2015)
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Frontiers in Bioscience-Landmark (FBL) is published by IMR Press from Volume 26 Issue 5 (2021). Previous articles were published by another publisher on a subscription basis, and they are hosted by IMR Press on imrpress.com as a courtesy and upon agreement with Frontiers in Bioscience.
Sphingosine-1 phosphate promotes intestinal epithelial cell proliferation via S1PR2
1 Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325000, China
2 Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
3 McGuire VA Medical Center, Richmond, VA 23235, USA
Abstract
Sphingosine-1 phosphate (S1P) is a potent bioactive lipid mediator that acts both as an intracellular signaling molecule and a natural ligand of five different G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), S1PR1-5. The level of S1P in intestinal tissue is abundant. Previous studies have reported that S1P protects intestinal epithelial cell from apoptosis by activating the ERK and Akt signaling pathways. However, the effect of S1P on intestinal epithelial cell proliferation under physiological conditions and the underlying signaling mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Here, we show that, except for S1PR4, all S1PRs are expressed in normal intestinal epithelial cells with S1PR2 being the most abundant. S1P dose-dependently stimulated cell migration and proliferation, which were inhibited by JTE-013, a selective chemical antagonist of S1PR2, and by a S1PR2 shRNA. S1P significantly upregulated the expression of c-Myc, cyclin D1, E-cadherin and zona occluden-1 (ZO-1), which was completely inhibited by downregulation of S1PR2 expression with a shRNA. In total, the results suggest that S1P-mediated activation of the S1PR2 plays an important role in regulating intestinal epithelial cell proliferation and migration.
Keywords
- S1P
- S1P Receptor
- Intestinal Epithelial Cells
- Cell Proliferation
References
- [1] L. W. Peterson and D. Artis. Intestinal epithelial cells: regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis. Nat Rev Immunol, 14(3), 141-53 (2014)
- [2] L. Xiao, J N Rao, T. Zou, L. Liu, B S Marasa, J. Chen, D J Turner, A. Passaniti and J. Y. Wang. Induced JunD in intestinal epithelial cells represses CDK4 transcription through its proximal promoter region following polyamine depletion. Biochem J, 403(3), 573-81 (2007)
- [3] M. Maceyka, S G Payne, S. Milstien and S. Spiegel. Sphingosine kinase, sphingosine-1-phosphate, and apoptosis. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids, 1585(2–3), 193-201 (2002)
- [4] M. Adada, D. Canals, Y A Hannun and L. M. Obeid. Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2. FEBS J, 280(24), 6354-66 (2013)
- [5] Y. Takuwa, Y. Okamoto, K. Yoshioka and N. Takuwa. Sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling in physiology and diseases. Biofactors, 38(5), 329-37 (2012)
- [6] G. M. Strub, M. Maceyka, N C Hait, S. Milstien and S. Spiegel. Extracellular and intracellular actions of sphingosine-1-phosphate. Adv Exp Med Biol, 688, 141-55 (2010)
- [7] W. L. Santos and K. R. Lynch. Drugging sphingosine kinases. ACS Chem Biol, 10(1), 225-33 (2015)
- [8] G. M. Strub, M. Paillard, J. Liang, L. Gomez, J C Allegood, N C Hait, M. Maceyka, M M Price, Q. Chen, D C Simpson, T. Kordula, S. Milstien, E J Lesnefsky and S. Spiegel. Sphingosine-1-phosphate produced by sphingosine kinase 2 in mitochondria interacts with prohibitin 2 to regulate complex IV assembly and respiration. FASEB J, 25(2), 600-12 (2011)
- [9] J. J. Aarthi, M A Darendeliler and P. N. Pushparaj. Dissecting the role of the S1P/S1PR axis in health and disease. J Dent Res, 90(7), 841-54 (2011)
- [10] T. Hla and V. Brinkmann. Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P): Physiology and the effects of S1P receptor modulation. Neurology, 76(8 Suppl 3), S3-8 (2011)
- [11] J. Greenspon, R. Li, L. Xiao, J N Rao, R. Sun, E D Strauch, T. Shea-Donohue, J Y Wang and D. J. Turner. Sphingosine-1-phosphate regulates the expression of adherens junction protein E-cadherin and enhances intestinal epithelial cell barrier function. Dig Dis Sci, 56(5), 1342-53 (2011)
- [12] J. Greenspon, R. Li, L. Xiao, J N Rao, B S Marasa, E D Strauch, J Y Wang and D. J. Turner. Sphingosine-1-phosphate protects intestinal epithelial cells from apoptosis through the Akt signaling pathway. Dig Dis Sci, 54(3), 499-510 (2009)
- [13] M. N. Bavaria, S. Jin, R M Ray and L. R. Johnson. The mechanism by which MEK/ERK regulates JNK and p38 activity in polyamine depleted IEC-6 cells during apoptosis. Apoptosis, 19(3), 467-79 (2014)
- [14] S. Bhattacharya, R M Ray and L. R. Johnson. Prevention of TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis in polyamine-depleted IEC-6 cells is mediated through the activation of ERK1/2. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, 286(3), G479-90 (2004)
- [15] R. Liu, R. Zhao, X. Zhou, X. Liang, D J Campbell, X. Zhang, L. Zhang, R. Shi, G. Wang, W M Pandak, A E Sirica, P B Hylemon and H. Zhou. Conjugated bile acids promote cholangiocarcinoma cell invasive growth through activation of sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2. Hepatology, 60(3), 908-18 (2014)
- [16] A. Quaroni, J. Wands, R L Trelstad and K. J. Isselbacher. Epithelioid cell cultures from rat small intestine. Characterization by morphologic and immunologic criteria. J Cell Biol, 80(2), 248-65 (1979)
- [17] W. Hu, J. Huang, S. Mahavadi, F. Li and K. S. Murthy. Lentiviral siRNA silencing of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors S1P1 and S1P2 in smooth muscle. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 343(4), 1038-44 (2006)
- [18] M. Maceyka, K B Harikumar, S. Milstien and S. Spiegel. Sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling and its role in disease. Trends Cell Biol, 22(1), 50-60 (2012)
- [19] M. Nagahashi, N C Hait, M. Maceyka, D. Avni, K. Takabe, S. Milstien and S. Spiegel. Sphingosine-1-phosphate in chronic intestinal inflammation and cancer. Adv Biol Regul, 54, 112-20 (2014)
- [20] E. Studer, X. Zhou, R. Zhao, Y. Wang, K. Takabe, M. Nagahashi, W M Pandak, P. Dent, S. Spiegel, R. Shi, W. Xu, X. Liu, P. Bohdan, L. Zhang, H. Zhou and P. B. Hylemon. Conjugated bile acids activate the sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 in primary rodent hepatocytes. Hepatology, 55(1), 267-76 (2012)
- [21] K. Chen, W. Xie, B. Luo, W. Xiao, D H Teitelbaum, H. Yang, K. Zhang and C. Zhang. Intestinal mucosal barrier is injured by BMP2/4 via activation of NF-kappaB signals after ischemic reperfusion. Mediators Inflamm, 2014, 901530 (2014)
- [22] H. Ouyang, H S Yang, T. Yu, T D Shan, J Y Li, C Z Huang, W. Zhong, Z S Xia and Q. K. Chen. MEK/ERK pathway activation by insulin receptor isoform alteration is associated with the abnormal proliferation and differentiation of intestinal epithelial cells in diabetic mice. Mol Cell Biochem, 413(1-2), 165-78 (2016)
- [23] V. Pomerleau, M. Landry, J. Bernier, P H Vachon and C. Saucier. Met receptor-induced Grb2 or Shc signals both promote transformation of intestinal epithelial cells, albeit they are required for distinct oncogenic functions. BMC Cancer, 14, 240 (2014)
- [24] K. Zhang, M W Hornef and A. Dupont. The intestinal epithelium as guardian of gut barrier integrity. Cell Microbiol, 17(11), 1561-9 (2015)
- [25] E. N. Elliott and K. H. Kaestner. Epigenetic regulation of the intestinal epithelium. Cell Mol Life Sci, 72(21), 4139-56 (2015)
- [26] E. Salvo Romero, C. Alonso Cotoner, C. Pardo Camacho, M. Casado Bedmar and M. Vicario. The intestinal barrier function and its involvement in digestive disease. Rev Esp Enferm Dig, 107(11), 686-96 (2015)
- [27] C. Tincati, D C Douek and G. Marchetti. Gut barrier structure, mucosal immunity and intestinal microbiota in the pathogenesis and treatment of HIV infection. AIDS Res Ther, 13, 19 (2016)
- [28] J. H. Suh and J. D. Saba. Sphingosine-1-phosphate in inflammatory bowel disease and colitis-associated colon cancer: the fat's in the fire. Transl Cancer Res, 4(5), 469-483 (2015)
- [29] C. T. Murphy, K. Nally, F. Shanahan and S. Melgar. Shining a light on intestinal traffic. Clin Dev Immunol, 2012, 808157 (2012)
- [30] J. Kunisawa, Y. Kurashima, M. Higuchi, M. Gohda, I. Ishikawa, I. Ogahara, N. Kim, M. Shimizu and H. Kiyono. Sphingosine 1-phosphate dependence in the regulation of lymphocyte trafficking to the gut epithelium. J Exp Med, 204(10), 2335-48 (2007)
- [31] Y. Takuwa, Y. Okamoto, K. Yoshioka and N. Takuwa. Sphingosine-1-phosphate signaling and biological activities in the cardiovascular system. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1781(9), 483-8 (2008)
- [32] D. H. Nguyen-Tran, N C Hait, H. Sperber, J. Qi, K. Fischer, N. Ieronimakis, M. Pantoja, A. Hays, J. Allegood, M. Reyes, S. Spiegel and H. Ruohola-Baker. Molecular mechanism of sphingosine-1-phosphate action in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Dis Model Mech, 7(1), 41-54 (2014)
- [33] S. Calise, S. Blescia, F. Cencetti, C. Bernacchioni, C. Donati and P. Bruni. Sphingosine 1-phosphate stimulates proliferation and migration of satellite cells: role of S1P receptors. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1823(2), 439-50 (2012)
- [34] S. Spiegel and S. Milstien. The outs and the ins of sphingosine-1-phosphate in immunity. Nat Rev Immunol, 11(6), 403-15 (2011)
- [35] M. H. Graler: Targeting sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) levels and S1P receptor functions for therapeutic immune interventions. Cell Physiol Biochem, 26(1), 79-86 (2010)
- [36] T. Sanchez and T. Hla. Structural and functional characteristics of S1P receptors. J Cell Biochem, 92(5), 913-22 (2004)
- [37] Y. Yatomi, R J Welch and Y. Igarashi. Distribution of sphingosine 1-phosphate, a bioactive sphingolipid, in rat tissues. FEBS Lett, 404(2-3), 173-4 (1997)
- [38] A. N. Anbazhagan, S. Priyamvada, A. Alakkam, A. Kumar, A. Borthakur, S. Saksena, R K Gill, W A Alrefai and P. K. Dudeja. Transcriptional Modulation of SLC26A3 (DRA) by Sphingosine-1-Phosphate. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, ajpgi 00308 2015 (2016)
- [39] E. Germinario, S. Peron, L. Toniolo, R. Betto, F. Cencetti, C. Donati, P. Bruni and D. Danieli-Betto. S1P2 receptor promotes mouse skeletal muscle regeneration. J Appl Physiol (1985), 113(5), 707-13 (2012)
- [40] M. H. Moon, J K Jeong and S. Y. Park. Activation of S1P2 receptor, a possible mechanism of inhibition of adipogenic differentiation by sphingosine 1phosphate. Mol Med Rep, 11(2), 1031-6 (2015)
- [41] M. Grimm, D. Tischner, K. Troidl, J. Albarran Juarez, K K Sivaraj, N. Ferreiros Bouzas, G. Geisslinger, C J Binder and N. Wettschureck. S1P2/G12/13 Signaling Negatively Regulates Macrophage Activation and Indirectly Shapes the Atheroprotective B1-Cell Population. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 36(1), 37-48 (2016)
- [42] D. R. Herr, M J Reolo, Y X Peh, W. Wang, C W Lee, R. Rivera, I C Paterson and J. Chun. Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1P2) attenuates reactive oxygen species formation and inhibits cell death: implications for otoprotective therapy. Sci Rep, 6, 24541 (2016)
- [43] R. Wiltshire, V. Nelson, D T Kho, C E Angel, S J O'Carroll and E. S. Graham. Regulation of human cerebro-microvascular endothelial baso-lateral adhesion and barrier function by S1P through dual involvement of S1P1 and S1P2 receptors. Sci Rep, 6, 19814 (2016)
- [44] R. Liu, X. Li, X. Qiang, L. Luo, P B Hylemon, Z. Jiang, L. Zhang and H. Zhou. Taurocholate Induces Cyclooxygenase-2 Expression via the Sphingosine 1-phosphate Receptor 2 in a Human Cholangiocarcinoma Cell Line. J Biol Chem, 290(52), 30988-1002 (2015)
