Adolescence is a life cycle stage characterised by involvement in risky behaviours (Ksinan et al, 2022). This includes betting and gambling. By considering gambling disorder from a biopsychosocial perspective, which integrates biological, psychological and social factors in its aetiology and maintenance, we can define it as a progressive and chronic failure to resist the urge to gamble, becoming a maladaptive behaviour that damages and violates personal, family and professional goals (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). In Spain, young people between the ages of 18 and 25 are most at risk of gambling disorder, according to the Gambling Prevalence Study 2022–2023 [Observatorio Español de las Drogas y las Adicciones], prepared by the General Directorate for Gambling Regulation of the Ministry of Consumer Affairs (2023). According to the report, the gambler’s profile in Spain is increasingly younger (22% of gamblers are under 25), and the route of entry to gambling is mostly face-to-face. In this sense, several studies indicate that the likelihood of developing problem gambling and related high-risk behaviours is high during adolescence and young adulthood (Richard and King, 2023). Previous research suggests that the younger the age of the first contact with gambling, the greater the likelihood of developing problem gambling and the greater the severity of the problem (Kang et al, 2019; Sarabia et al, 2014).

It is worth noting that the emergence of online gambling has changed gambling behaviour. This new form of gambling has led to a strong increase in gambling behaviour due to its greater accessibility, the uninterrupted and private nature of the game, the use of digital money, and the speed and ease of access to rewards that enhance greater gambling capacity (Brooks and Clark, 2019). Activities with gambling-like features, such as achievements or skills that act as rewards, account for various propositions that simulate gambling or gambling-like dynamics and allow players to practice or approximate gambling without spending money (King et al, 2015). Exposure to these technologies increases gambling behaviour and the development of related problem behaviours (King et al, 2020).

As mentioned above, adolescents and young people are more vulnerable to developing problem gambling. However, the concern is heightened in the case of young people in a situation of, or at risk of, social exclusion. If we consider the definition of social exclusion as a dynamic process that hinders people’s integration in their social context at different levels: political, economic, socio-cultural… (Camacho, 2015), we observe a clear relationship between situations of social exclusion and problem gambling disorder and other mental health pathologies (Raybould et al, 2021; Van der Maas, 2016). Hence, social exclusion is not only a vulnerability factor for problem gambling occurrence but also a factor in the severity of its symptomatology.

Attachment, understood as the affective bond formed through people’s early experiences with their primary caregivers—usually their parents (Bowlby, 1982)—can also be affected by social exclusion. For example, because parents have to work longer hours to meet expenses and cannot devote as much time to attending to their children’s affective needs, leaving them unmet, an insecure attachment style may develop. This attachment style is characterised by anxiety or avoidance in intimate relationships. In these cases, gambling may be used as an attempt to regulate emotions (Mikulincer and Shaver, 2016). Moreover, authors like Simons et al (2019) have explored how attachment style may interact with other risk factors, such as stress and impulsivity, to increase vulnerability to developing a gambling disorder.

Problems comorbid with gambling disorder, especially in these vulnerable groups, include substance use (Wu et al, 2014) and depressive symptoms (Nower et al, 2022). The latter is considered one of the main causes of problem gambling. It is important to consider the strong impact that processes of social exclusion have on the relational and emotional domain of those who suffer it (Zhang and Wang, 2022). Indeed, traumatic experiences, segregation and social isolation may put these young people at greater risk of mental health problems (Sapiro and Ward, 2020).

However, little is known about the possible psychological mechanisms through which social exclusion might influence gambling. Broadly, three types of gambling motivation have been proposed: (1) coping motivation, where gambling is used to reduce negative affect; (2) enhancement motivation, where gambling is used to increase positive affect; and (3) social motivation, where gambling is used to increase social belonging (Mackinnon et al, 2016). It is also reasonable to assume that economic motivation is a significant motivation for gambling in low socio-economic status groups (Devos et al, 2017).

Given the scarcity of studies dealing with the profile of young people and adolescents in a situation of or at risk of social exclusion, the main objectives of the present study were as follows: (1) to examine the relationship between the severity of gambling behaviour, gambling motives, social support, depression, attachment styles, sensation-seeking, substance use and video game addiction in adolescents and young people at risk of social exclusion, (2) to analyse the predictive role of attachment styles in the severity of gambling behaviour, and (3) to analyse sex and age differences in the study variables.

First, the relationships between the study variables were analysed in young people at risk of social exclusion (Table 1). The results showed that gambling severity in the last year was positively associated with the four gambling motives, especially the Economic Motive (r = 0.67**) and the Enhancement Motive (r = 0.63**). It was also positively associated with secure attachment (r = 0.22*) and sensation-seeking (r = 0.24*). Pathological gambling was associated with all four gambling motives: the Coping Motive (r = 0.26**), the Enhancement Motive (r = 0.25**), the Social Motive (r = 0.24**) and the Economic Motive (r = 0.22**).

Secondly, the relationships between the study variables and substance use were analysed (Table 2). The results revealed statistically significant and positive relationships between gambling severity in the past year and the use of tobacco (r = 0.37**), alcohol (r = 0.50**), tranquillisers (r = 0.38**), cannabis (r = 0.46**), cocaine (r = 0.34**), hallucinogens (r = 0.66**), speed (r = 0.77**) and MDMA (ecstasy) (r = 0.61**). Gambling disorder was also positively associated with the use of tranquillisers (r = 0.24**), cocaine (r = 0.18*), hallucinogens (r = 0.31**) and MDMA (r = 0.29**). Concerning gambling motives, economic motives were positively associated with all substance use (tobacco r = 0.20*, alcohol r = 0.30**, tranquillisers r = 0.27**, cannabis r = 0.31**, cocaine r = 0.23**, hallucinogens r = 0.29**, speed r = 0.29** and MDMA r = 0.22**). Similarly, social support was negatively associated with cocaine use (r = –0.21**). Likewise, preoccupied attachment was positively related to tobacco use (r = 0.23**) and video game addiction to speed use (r = 0.27**).

Thirdly, the predictive role of attachment styles in problem gambling among young people at risk of social exclusion was analysed. The statistically significant results obtained are presented below (Table 3). The results reflect the predictive role of secure and dimissing attachment in the severity of gambling in the last 12 months (R = 0.33, R² = 0.11, adjusted R² = 0.07), as well as the predictive role of dismissing and fearful attachment in the severity of lifetime gambling (R = 0.27; R² = 0.07; corrected R² = 0.04).

Fourthly, mean differences in the study variables were analysed according to sex. As can be seen in Table 4, women reported higher scores than men for severity of gambling in the past 12 months (M = 4.47 and M = 2.98, respectively), secure attachment (M = 14.46 and M = 14.41, respectively) and preoccupied attachment (M = 11.42 and M = 10.41, respectively), as well as for tobacco (M = 2.36 and M = 1.41, respectively) and alcohol (M = 1.82 and M = 1.12, respectively) use. The effect size was medium for severity of gambling in the past 12 months (d = 0.37), preoccupied attachment (d = 0.24), and smoking (d = 0.29) and alcohol use (d = 0.28), whereas it was small for secure attachment (d = 0.01).

Fifthly, the mean differences in the study variables were analysed as a function of age. The statistically significant results obtained are presented in Table 5. Group 4 (20–25 years, M = 4.71) obtained higher scores for gambling severity in the last 12 months compared to Group 3 (18–19 years, M = 1.32). In terms of social support, Group 2 (16–17 years, M = 49.78) scored higher than Group 3 (18–19 years, M = 33.23). Finally, Group 2 (16–17 years, M = 22.17) scored higher in intensity of sensation-seeking compared to Group 1 (13–15 years, M = 19.38) and Group 3 (18–19 years, M = 19.91).

The first aim of the study was to assess the relationship between attachment style, different motives for gambling, social support, sensation-seeking, depressive symptoms, substance use and video game abuse with problem gambling among young people experiencing or at risk of social exclusion. The results have shown that in this population profile, the motives of enhancement and the search for economic resources are significantly correlated with sensation-seeking and secure attachment, whereas depressive symptoms are positively associated with coping motives and fearful, preoccupied and dismissing attachment styles. On the basis of the results obtained, we can identify two possible profiles of young people at risk of or in a situation of social exclusion. On the one hand, a profile of depressive symptomatology linked to a dysfunctional attachment pattern, seeking relief from negative emotional situations in gambling behaviour, and on the other hand, a second profile of people with a more functional attachment pattern, who seek resources in gambling to improve their economic situation, and also feel excitement linked to the search for novelty. Both profiles, which may be influenced by adaptation to a socio-economically disadvantaged environment, account for two different coping strategies that could be risk factors for the onset of a gambling disorder.

Concerning the first profile, other studies also find a relationship between attachment styles and depression in adolescents and young people (Cortés-García et al, 2019) and between depression and gambling behaviour (Lister et al, 2015; Takamatsu et al, 2016). Regarding the second profile, research shows that economic motives, especially in the young population, are positively correlated with the frequency of gambling and the severity of the problems it can generate (Tabri et al, 2022). In this sense, seeking to improve one’s economic situation may be an important predictor of gambling behaviour or the emergence of a gambling disorder, especially in economically disadvantaged populations (Flack and Morris, 2015). This is related to sensation-seeking, as gambling may be a faster and, therefore, more exciting way to seek economic improvement.

Concerning video game use, the results suggest that abusive video game use is significantly correlated with all gambling motives. A meta-analysis by Wang and Cheng (2022) also found a relationship between video game use and different gambling motives. In particular, the enhancement motive showed the strongest relationship with video game addiction.

In terms of substance use, the present study shows a negative relationship between cocaine use and social support. Similarly, other studies have pointed to the importance of support networks as a protective factor against drug use (Lookatch et al, 2019). A relationship was also found between the severity of gambling and substance use. This finding is echoed in studies like those by Noel et al (2024) and Quinlan et al (2014).

Secondly, the predictive role of attachment styles in problem gambling in adolescents and young people at risk of exclusion was analysed. Concerning the predictive role of gambling-related attachment styles, the predictive capacity of both secure and dismissing attachment was observed in the severity of gambling behaviour in the last 12 months. These findings could be explained by following the two gambling profiles found, in which a secure attachment pattern was found to predict gambling behaviour when associated with enhancement and economic motives and sensation-seeking. In contrast, a preoccupied attachment associated with depression and coping motives established a distinct profile (Juodis and Stewart, 2016). In addition, many other studies find associations between insecure attachment and problem gambling (Topino et al, 2023).

Thirdly, we assessed sex differences in the study variables. Females obtained higher scores on gambling severity in the past 12 months, preoccupied attachment, and tobacco and alcohol use. In line with our findings, other research also concludes that females have a higher prevalence of preoccupied attachment than males (Padilla and Díaz, 2016). However, the rest of our findings differ from other studies, which found that males have higher tobacco and alcohol consumption (Observatorio Español de las Drogas y las Adicciones, 2023) and higher levels of problem gambling (Dirección General de Ordenación del Juego del Ministerio de Consumo, 2023). In general, the evidence suggests that gambling among men is more closely associated with sensation-seeking and variables related to impulsivity, whereas among women, it is associated with the search for relief from stressful life situations and unpleasant emotional states (Macía et al, 2023).

Fourthly, the mean differences in the study variables were analysed according to age. The older age group obtained higher scores in gambling severity. In this regard, according to the report of the General Directorate for the Regulation of Gambling of the Ministry of Consumer Affairs (2023), the age group with the highest symptomatology of pathological gambling was 26–35 years, followed by 18–25 years and 36–45 years.

This study is not without limitations. Firstly, the sample size should be increased in future studies. Secondly, although adults accompanied the participants, there were numerous difficulties with reading comprehension and attention, which may have influenced the results. Thirdly, the cross-sectional nature of the study does not allow establishing causal relationships between variables. Fourthly, it is important to mention that the differences between the groups of participants (belonging to different educational centres) may have influenced the results when calculating the differences in means according to their age. Finally, there is an imbalance between the number of male and female participants in the study. There could be several reasons for this sex bias. We note the greater presence of male students in these training centres, which could be linked to a lower incidence of school failure among the female population or to the provision of training in occupations traditionally associated with males.

In conclusion, these findings are novel and could be useful in view of the lack of studies of this particular group. It seems that economic motivation could be closely linked to gambling behaviour in economically disadvantaged groups. This aspect should be considered when applying policies related to the planning and management of gambling. Similarly, from a gender perspective, attention to the situation of young women in situations of social exclusion is another important point to highlight. We can deduce that young women at risk of or in a situation of exclusion would present higher gambling severity, as well as a higher level of tobacco and alcohol consumption, which represents a specific risk profile for the design of treatment proposals.

The search for economic resources and the avoidance of emotionally depressive realities are two key explanatory factors of gambling behaviour that must be considered in any intervention strategy, as well as addressing the construction of support networks as a fundamental objective of these strategies.

This study shows how the severity of gambling in people at risk of social exclusion: is related to substance use, is predicted by attachment style, and differs by gender and age.

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

IGM, JM, NE and AE designed the research study. IGM performed the research. JM analyzed the data. JM, NE and AE reviewed and edited the manuscript. AE and NE supervised the study. All authors contributed to editorial changes in the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. All authors have participated sufficiently in the work and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

The study was carried out in accordance with the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of University of Deusto (approval number: ETK-5/20-21). All patients or their families/legal guardians gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study.

Research funded by the Directorate General for the Regulation of Gambling (Spanish Ministry of Consumption; Ref: 23/00001).

The authors declare no conflict of interest.