Social media refers to an online space where individuals share common interests, communicate with colleagues and friends, and present information for self-expression (Cai et al., 2025). According to recent statistics, the number of social media users worldwide exceeded 5 billion in 2024 and is projected to reach 6 billion by 2029 (Statista, 2024). Although social media offers many benefits, problematic use can lead to negative consequences, such as social media addiction.

Social media addiction refers to excessive involvement with social media, a compulsive desire to access it, the excessive use of time and energy, and impaired interpersonal or occupational functioning due to its use (Wang et al., 2025). Social media addiction is classified as a type of behavioral addiction and is characterized by six components common to all behavioral addictions: salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, conflict, and relapse (Çiftci et al., 2025).

Social media addiction has been reported to cause academic, social, and psychiatric impairments in adolescents (Çiftci et al., 2025). For example, adolescents’ social media addiction influences insomnia through depressive symptoms (Çiftci et al., 2025); adolescents who use social media for more than 2 hours per day show lower scores on academic performance and engagement (Tsitsika et al., 2014); and social media addiction negatively impacts adolescents’ experiences with cyberbullying (Kucuk et al., 2024).

Due to having one of the highest smartphone penetration rates in the world, Korean teenagers are exposed to social media at a younger age than their peers in many other countries (Kyung and Kim, 2019). In addition, due to Korea’s competitive and test-oriented educational environment, adolescents experience substantial academic stress and often use social media as a coping mechanism to relieve this stress (Bae et al., 2020). Moreover, Korean teenagers have become increasingly sensitive to social comparison and the fear of missing out (FOMO), which reflects a collectivist yet competitive cultural context in which peer recognition is strongly mediated by social media (Han and Kim, 2020). Finally, platforms such as KakaoTalk, Instagram, and TikTok are deeply embedded in the peer culture of Korean teenagers, and social media use is integrated with other digital content, such as online games, short-form videos, and webtoons, increasing the risk of problematic use (Kwack and Kang, 2020). Taken together, social media addiction among Korean adolescents should be understood within Korea’s technological, educational, and cultural context.

Various scales have been developed to measure social media addiction (Watson et al., 2020). One of the most widely used scales is the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS). The BSMAS has been used in various cultural contexts, and its validity and reliability have been verified (Bottaro et al., 2025). For example, Arrivillaga et al. (2024) validated the Spanish version of the scale and confirmed robust psychometric properties for Spanish speakers. Similarly, Monacis et al. (2017) demonstrated the reliability and validity of the Italian version of the scale, further exploring the relationship between social media addiction and attachment type. In Asia, Lin et al. (2017) used the Persian version to verify the validity of the scale using classical test theory and Rasch model, and Leung et al. (2020) reported the stable psychometric properties of the BSMAS for young people in China. These cross-cultural validation studies have confirmed the strength of the scale while also indicating limitations in its applicability in different socio-cultural contexts. In addition, several studies reported that the BSMAS has demonstrated reliability and validity among adolescents as well as adults (Rouleau et al., 2023; Watson et al., 2020; Arrivillaga et al., 2024). Given the lack of validation studies of the BSMAS for Korean adolescents and the potential influence of educational and cultural contexts on the expression and measurement of social media addiction, this study is necessary to establish the appropriateness of the BSMAS for this population.

Therefore, this study examines the validity and reliability of the BSMAS for Korean adolescents. The purpose of this study was to (1) examine the factor structure of the BSMAS for Korean adolescents, (2) confirm the internal consistency of the BSMAS, (3) assess the convergent validity of the BSMAS, and (4) verify the measurement invariance of the BSMAS across gender and age. Establishing measurement invariance ensures that the same construct is measured in the same way across groups (Putnick and Bornstein, 2016). Testing measurement invariance across gender and age ensures that men and women, as well as different age groups, interpret and respond to the BSMAS items equivalently. According to previous studies (Aparicio-Martínez et al., 2020; Politte‐Corn et al., 2023), gender and age differences have been observed in social media addiction. Testing measurement invariance across gender and age addresses the risk that differences observed in social media addiction scores may reflect measurement artifacts rather than actual psychological differences (Al-Dassean and Murad, 2025; Sisí et al., 2025). Therefore, demonstrating measurement invariance across gender and age is a prerequisite for conducting valid group comparisons and enhancing the interpretability and generalizability of the results.

Prior to the main analysis, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted to examine the presence of common method bias, which can occur when all variables are measured at a single time point and collected through self-report. Exploratory factor analysis of all 70 items revealed 11 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, with the first factor accounting for 25.17% of the total variance. Because a single factor did not explain more than 50% of the total variance, the likelihood of significant common method bias was considered low (Podsakoff et al., 2003).

3.1 Factor Analysis

The data failed to meet the assumption of multivariate normality (two-sided multivariate skew test of fit = 12.05, p 0.001; two-sided multivariate kurtosis test of fit = 72.92, p 0.001). Therefore, we used the robust maximum likelihood estimator to accommodate non-normality of the data. The model fit indices for the one-factor model are presented in Table 1. The RMSEA and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) values for the one-factor model showed a poor model fit, the CFI and $\chi$²/df index indicated an acceptable fit, and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) showed a good model fit.

Because the fit of the one-factor model was insufficient, the structure of the model was modified based on the modification index’s suggestions. The modified model is a one-factor model that allows correlations between items 1 and 2 (Fig. 1). The goodness-of-fit indices for the modified one-factor model are presented in Table 1. The RMSEA, CFI, TLI, $\chi$²/df, SRMR of the modified one-factor model indicated a good model fit.

Fig. 1.

Modified one-factor model of the BSMAS. BSMAS, Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale.

This study was conducted to evaluate the psychometric properties of the BSMAS in Korean adolescents. The BSMAS was found to have a modified one-factor structure, good convergent validity, and acceptable internal consistency. In addition, while the measurement invariance of the modified one-factor structure of the BSMAS across age was confirmed, the measurement invariance across gender was only partially confirmed.

In testing measurement invariance across age in the BSMAS, the configural, metric, and scalar models were supported, indicating that adolescents from different age groups interpret and respond to the BSMAS items in the same way. This supports the validity of comparisons across age groups. Moreover, because previous studies (e.g., Politte‐Corn et al., 2023) have reported age-related differences in social media use patterns, the findings of this study provide evidence that such differences reflect actual psychological variations rather than measurement artifacts.

In testing measurement invariance across gender in the BSMAS, the configural and metric models were supported, but the scalar invariance model was not supported. This indicates that while the modified one-factor structure is consistent across genders and the factor loadings are equivalent, the item intercepts differ by gender. Similar results were reported in the Jordanian version of the BSMAS, which demonstrated partial scalar invariance across gender (Al-Dassean and Murad, 2025). Consequently, it is not statistically appropriate to compare BSMAS scores between male and female adolescents without accounting for gender differences, and gender-specific norms should therefore be considered in clinical and research applications. Moreover, although previous studies (e.g., Aparicio-Martínez et al., 2020) have reported gender-related differences in social media addiction, the findings of this study suggest that such differences may partly reflect measurement artifacts rather than true psychological variations.

Several explanations can be offered for why scalar invariance across gender was not established. First, male and female adolescents may have responded to the items based on different social media use motives. For example, male adolescents may have answered the items with enhancement or pastime motives, whereas female adolescents may have responded with coping or social motives. Second, certain terms in the items (e.g., “personal problems,” “urge”) may have been interpreted differently across genders. Third, the same item may have conveyed different meanings to males and females, such that in some groups it accurately reflected symptoms of social media addiction, while in others it did so less precisely. This explanation provides a basis for why scalar invariance was not supported in the present study. However, due to the limited sample size, partial scalar invariance analysis could not be conducted, and thus these explanations should be regarded as provisional. Future research with larger and more gender-balanced samples will be able to test partial invariance, identify items that function differently by gender, and determine which of these explanations is most accurate.

Although the internal consistency of the BSMAS was generally acceptable, Item 3 (‘You use social media to forget about personal problems’) contributed less to the overall reliability compared to the other five items. Specifically, when Item 3 was deleted, Cronbach’s $\alpha$ did not decrease, suggesting that the influence of Item 3 on internal consistency was relatively minimal. However, Item 3 showed an item–total correlation of 0.57, which exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.30. Therefore, Item 3 was retained in the present study; nonetheless, future validation studies should examine whether revision or modification of this item is necessary.

Three explanations can be proposed for the finding that Item 3 of the BSMAS (“You use social media to forget about personal problems”) showed relatively lower item–total correlations compared to the other items, and a relatively higher “$\alpha$ if item deleted” value. First, among adults, there is a stronger tendency to intentionally use social media to cope with stress or emotional problems, so that coping motives are more strongly associated with social media addiction, whereas among adolescents, their patterns of social media use may not yet have generalized into a distinct addictive pattern. The fact that this result was not observed in a previous study conducted with Korean college students (Shin, 2022) supports this explanation. Second, the phrase “personal problems” may be perceived as vague or abstract by adolescents. It is unclear whether “personal problems” refers to academic, family, or peer-related issues. Third, Item 3 of the BSMAS may better capture a separate factor—such as coping motives or avoidance motives for social media use—rather than social media addiction itself.

The original one-factor model was not a good fit, but by allowing two items to be correlated, we observed an improvement in model fit. This suggests that, rather than assuming items 1 and 2 are independent, the relationships between these items are important and must be considered in this model. However, because the modified model, based on the modification index, may not be applicable to other samples as is, its fit should be confirmed in future studies using different samples (Kline, 2023).

Based on the modification indices, one correlated error was added to the modified one-factor model. Specifically, the error terms of Item 1 (“You spend a lot of time thinking about social media or planning how to use it”) and Item 2 (“You feel an urge to use social media more and more”) were allowed to covary. The positive covariance can be explained by the fact that both items capture preoccupation with and craving for social media, reflecting overlapping aspects of salience and tolerance.

The results of the correlation analysis between the BSMAS and the scales used to verify convergent validity showed that the BSMAS shared 46.24% of the variance with the SMAPS, which measures constructs like those of the BSMAS, and 12.96% to 36.00% of the variance with eight social media use motives. Among the use motives, coping motives showed a significantly higher correlation with the BSMAS than the other use motives. These findings are consistent with studies examining the relationship between social media use motives and social media addiction (Shin, 2022; Lim, 2023). Therefore, this suggests that when intervening with adolescents who have social media addiction, it is important to focus on their coping motives.

This study has both theoretical and practical implications. First, the modified one-factor model of the BSMAS presented in this study demonstrates that the correlations between the items of the BSMAS should be considered when measuring social media addiction in Korean adolescents using the BSMAS. Second, the finding of only partial measurement invariance between male and female adolescents suggests that this scale may be perceived differently across genders and that the same BSMAS scores may not represent the same levels of social media addiction. Therefore, clinicians and counselors should exercise caution when interpreting gender differences in BSMAS scores. In addition, to increase the clinical utility of the BSMAS, it is necessary to develop interpretive guidelines that include gender-specific norms for Korean adolescents.

This study provides preliminary evidence that the BSMAS demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity as a tool for measuring social media addiction among Korean adolescents. The scale may be useful for screening and evaluating intervention; however, results should be interpreted with caution, as scalar invariance across gender was not supported and Item 3 showed relatively low performance. Further research with larger, gender-balanced samples and potential revisions to Item 3 is warranted. Despite these limitations, these findings suggest that the BSMAS is a promising tool that can contribute significantly to both research and practice.

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

YJL designed the study, collected the data, analyzed the results, and wrote the manuscript. The author read and approved the final version of the manuscript. The author has participated sufficiently in the work and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

The study was carried out in accordance with the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Gachon University (Approval no. 1044396-202503-HR-056-01). Written consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection.

The author would like to thank Kim S. for help in data collection.

This work was supported by the Gachon University research fund of 2025 (GCU-202504440001).

The author declares no conflict of interest.